சிவ வழிபாடு 2000 ஆண்டுகள் முந்தைய பழைய காசுகளில்

Maurya,  punchmarked AR karshapana,  'standing Shiva type'

Weight:  3.57 gm., Dimensions: 16 x13mm.
Standing Shiva with crested hair holding danda and kamandalu; sun; six-armed symbol;
     three-arched hill with crescent on top; 'bale-mark'.
'Bale-mark'
Reference:  Pieper 135 (plate coin)/ GH 566

Ujjain region, punchmarked AE,  'standing Shiva type'
Weight:  2.21 gm., Dimensions: 12x11 mm.
Standing Shiva; sun; six-armed symbol; three-arched hill with crescent on top;
     'bale-mark'.
'Bale-mark'.
Reference:  Pieper 166 (plate coin)

Ujjain: Early types

Maurya,  punchmarked AR karshapana,  'standing Shiva type' Weight:  3.57 gm., Dimensions: 16 x13mm. Standing Shiva with crested hair holding danda and kamandalu; sun; six-armed symbol;      three-arched hill with crescent on top; 'bale-mark'. 'Bale-mark' Reference:  Pieper 135 (plate coin)/ GH 566

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 http://coinindia.com/galleries-ujjain1.html

'Bale-mark'. Reference:  Pieper 166 (plate coin)
	These coins are still close copies of the silver karshapana type listed above but they are no longer issued in silver. They still maintain the 'bale-mark' reverse symbol of their prototype.
	Ujjain, punchmarked AE,  'standing Shiva type' Weight:  3.88 gm., Dimensions: 14 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; sun; six-aarmed symbol; tree. 'Bale-mark' and Ujjain symbol. Reference:  Pieper 164 (plate coin)
	Typologically this type departs further from the Mauryan prototype towards the  typical local Ujjain 'Shiva type'. On that type Shiva will henceforth occupy the dominant position to which the associated symbols are subordinated. As can be seen below these associated symbols are frequently still the same as on the Mauryan prototype, particularly sun and six-armed symbol. This coin is still punchmarked in contrast to the subsequent types which are all die-struck, but the symbol arrangement on the coin flan is already more a composition than a randomly done application of punches. On the reverse the 'bale-mark' is still maintained but now it is accompanied by the Ujjain symbol. In the further development the 'bale-mark' will disappear and the Ujjain symbol alone will become the reverse emblem of the whole series.
	Ujjain: Shiva types
	Ujjain, anonymous, AE 1/2 karshapana,  'standing Shiva type' Weight:  4.94 gm., Dimensions: 16 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda in right and kamandalu in left; sun above railed tree      on left and 6-armed symbol above taurines on right. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol. Reference:  Pieper 265 (plate coin)/ BMC pl.XXXVIII, nos.5-6
	Devendra Handa in 'Divinities on Ujjain Coins', ICS-NL 51, p.5: "The commonest figure is that of a male bearing matted locks or a top-knot and holding a staff and water vessel in his two hands corresponding almost exactly to the description of Rudra-Shiva in the Skanda Purana." The importance of the Shiva cult at Ujjain and the combined depiction of the same figure with a bull, the vahana of Shiva, support its identification as Shiva.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  7.25 gm., Dimensions: 17 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda in right and kamandalu in left; sun above railed tree      on left and six-armed symbol on right; taurine on top; river at bottom Double orbed Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 267 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  7.22 gm., Dimensions: 17 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda in right and kamandalu in left; sun above railed tree      on left and 6-armed symbol on right; taurine and svastika on top. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 268 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1 1/2 karshapana, 'Shiva standing on lotus' Weight:  11.99 gm., Dimensions: 18 mm. Shiva standing on lotus holding danda in right and kamandalu in left;      railed tree on left; six-armed symbol above taurine on right. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 269 (plate coin)
	The depiction of the deity with danda and kamandalu is like on the previous coins except that the god is standing on a lotus on this specimen.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1 1/2 karshapana,  'standing Shiva type' Weight:  12.10 gm., Dimensions: 18 mm. Shiva-like figure standing with danda in right and kamandalu on left; railed tree on      left with taurines below. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol with an extra dot in center of each orb. Reference: Pieper 270 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  4.26 gm., Dimensions: 16 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; railed tree on left; six-armed      symbol above unconnected Ujjain symbol on right; river line at bottom. Ujjain symbol with a svastika inside each orb and circles in the angles. Reference: Pieper 271 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  3.58 gm., Dimensions: 14 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; cakra above Indradhvaja on left;      railed tree on right; river at the botom. Ujjain symbol Reference:  Pieper 272 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  1.64 gm., Dimensions: 13 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; railed tree on left; svastika on top;      cakra on right. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb. Reference: Pieper 273 (plate coin) / BMC, pl.XXXVIII, no.10
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'standing Shiva-like type' Weight:  3.34g, Dimensions: 12 mm Standing male deity both hands akimbo, danda in right; three-arched hill above      river on left; cakra above railed tree on right. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb and footprints in angles. Reference: Pieper 274 (plate coin) / Kothari 234 (who saw the footprints as taurines).
	The depiction of the footprint (paduka) of a deity is a well known  symbol of worship but it allows no attribution to a specific deity, as this symbol was used by followers of different deities, among them Buddha, Shiva and Vishnu.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/4 karshapana, 'dancing Shiva  type' Weight:  2.35 gm., Dimensions: 13 mm. Shiva in dancing pose with both knees slightly bent holding curved club-like      danda  and kamandalu; river on left; leaves of a tree on right. Double orbed Ujjain symbol with crescents in angles. Reference:  Pieper 275 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE  1/4karshapana, 'poly-cephalous Shiva type' Weight:  2.65 gm., Dimensions: 12 mm. Multi-headed Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; tree on left; (cakra above      fish-tank on right) Double orbed Ujjain symbol surrounded by river with fish. Reference: Pieper 276 (plate coin) / BMC, pl. XXXVIII, no.19
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, 'poly-cephalous Shiva type' Weight:  4.32 gm., Dimensions: 17 mm. Multi-headed standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; railed tree on right;      cakra above fish-tank on left. Double orbed Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 280 (plate coin) / BMC, pl.XXXVIII, no.22
	Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'crested standing Shiva type' Weight:  1.82 gm., Dimensions: 12 mm. Crested Shiva standing to right; railed tree on left; cakra above fish-tank on left;      river at the bottom. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol. Reference:  Pieper 281 (plate coin) / BMC, pl.XXXVIII, no.14
	In contrast to the above listed coins with depictions of Shiva with a top-knot hairdress, the hairstyle of the 'crested Shiva type' is depicted in a ponytail fashion thus reflection the 'matted locks' of Shiva as described in ancient texts.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'crested standing Shiva type' Weight:  0.72 gm., Dimensions: 9 mm. Crested Shiva standing to left holding danda and kamandalu; railed tree on left;      taurine on top. Ujjain symbol with alternating svastikas and taurines in its orbs. Reference: Pieper 282 (plate coin) / BMC, pl.XXXVIII, nos. 11-12
	Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'Shiva-like figure holding kamandalu before breast' Weight:  1.10 gm., Dimensions: 10 mm. Shiva-like standing figure holding danda and kamandalu; taurine above standard      on left. Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 284 (plate coin)
	The unusual feature of this coin is the position of the kamandalu which appears to be held by the standing deity just in front of its breast.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'Shiva-like figure holding kamandalu before breast' Weight:  1.2 gm., Dimensions: 11 mm. Shiva-like standing figure holding danda and kamandalu; taurine above standard on left,      srivatsa above a lotus-like symbol at right Double-orbed Ujjain symbol Reference: Pieper 284
	This beautifully preserved specimen clearly confirms that the deity is indeed holding a kamandalu in front of the breast. (Photo courtesy Prakash Jinjuvadiya.)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  1.72 gm., Dimensions: 12x11 mm Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; six-armed symbol on top. Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 287 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'standing Shiva type' Weight:  3.16 gm., Dimensions: 18x14 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; cakra above svastika and standard      on left; fish-tank above railed tree on right; river at the bottom. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb. Reference: Pieper 289 (plate coin) / BMC, pl.XXXVII, nos.19-20
	A very artistic and detailled depiction of Shiva in his ascetic form.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'standing Shiva + nandi type' Weight:  3.18 gm., Dimensions: 18x16 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu, nandi facing from left towards the      deity; cakra and standard on top left. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 319 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, 'standing Shiva + nandi type' Weight:  5.03 gm., Dimensions: 17x15 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu, nandi on the left facing towards the      viewer; cakra and Indradhvaja on top; parts of tree on right. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb. Reference: Pieper 318 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, 'standing Shiva + nandi type' Weight:  5.31 gm., Dimensions: 17x17 mm. Standing Shiva on right with nandi on left facing towards the deity; railed tree in      center between Shiva and bull. Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 321 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 2 karshapana, 'standing Shiva + nandi type' Weight:  15.53 gm., Dimensions: 26x21 mm. Standing Shiva on right with nandi on left facing towards the deity; railed tree in      center between Shiva and bull; taurines on top and a svastika on right bottom;      river with diverse aquatic creatures at the bottom. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol with an extra arm topped by a taurine in each angle. Reference: Pieper 322 (plate coin)
	An unusual heavy weight standard for the series. The heaviest recorded specimen offered at a public auction weighed 25.8 gm thus roughly representing a triple copper karshapana.
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1 1/2 karshapana, 'standing Shiva + nandi type' Weight:  13.38 gm., Dimensions: 20 mm. Standing Shiva in center; bull facing the deity from left, Indradhvaja above the bull;     railed tree on right; river at the bottom. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol with a taurine in each angle. Reference: Pieper 313 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana, 'standing Shiva+ nandi type' Weight:  3.40 gm., Dimensions: 18 mm. Standing Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; bull facing the deity from the right;      Ujjain symbol on top; railed tree on left; river at the bottom. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb. Reference: Pieper 311 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'seated Shiva + nandi type' Weight:  3.44 gm., Dimensions: 14x14 mm. Seated Shiva holding danda and kamandalu; bull facing the deity from left; Ujjain symbol      above the bull; railed tree on right; river at the bottom. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol with a taurine in each angle. Reference: Pieper 307 (plate coin)
	Ujjain, Bhumimitra AE, 'seated Lakulisha type' Weight:  1.78 gm., Dimensions: 12 mm.  Lakulisha seated on a lotus holding danda and kamandalu; cakra above tree on left;      Brahmi legend 'bhumimitasa' in vertical placement on right. Ujjain symbol with a small Ujjain symbol in each orb; nandipadas in angles. Reference: Pieper 405 (plate coin)
	The seated figure on this coin type has been identified as Lakulisha by several scholars, among them Wakankar, Kothari and Bhatt. Lakulisha is described as  the 28th and last incarnation of Shiva. He propagated and reformed Shaivism  with special emphasis on Yoga practices. According to Handa (ICS-NL 51, p.24)"the god depicted here predates the textual prescriptions and is one of the earliest examples of the depiction of Lakulisha. Alternatively it may be said to be the representation of Yogeshvara Shiva."
	Ujjain, inscribed AE 1/3 karshapana, elephant type Weight: 2.93 gm., Diameter: 13x13 mm Obv.: In a square incuse elephant standing to right with raised trunk; Brahmi          legend around reading anti-clockwise with outwards directed letters          'bhumimitasa'. Rev.: Double-orbed Ujjain symbol with a taurine in each angle. Reference: Pieper 407 (plate specimen)
	The 'seated Lakulisha type' inscribed in the name of Bhumimitra is a well known type among the rare inscribed coins of the local Ujjain series. This square elephant type inscribed in the same name Bhumimitra was completely unknown until the appearance of this unique specimen.

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UJJAIN diverse deities Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'seated Lakshmi type' Weight: 3.18 gm., Diameter: 16 mm. Seated Lakshmi with feet parallel to each other, right hand on leg and      left hand raised holding lotus flower. Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 304 (plate coin) / BMC pl.XXXVIII, no.25 Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu, is the goddess of fortune, wealth and prosperity and one of the most popular divinities from the Hindu pantheon. Incarnations of Vishnu are Rama and Krishna, as incarnations of Lakshmi are Sita (Rama's wife) and Radha (Krishna's lover). Lakshmi has a special association to the lotus flower which stands for growth and fertility- so much that even the world is said to be continually reborn from a lotus which comes out of the navel of Vishnu. Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'abisheka-Lakshmi txpe' Weight: 3.10 gm., Diameter: 15x11 mm. Lakshmi seated with feet parallel to each other, her right rests on her       belly and her left on her leg; Lakshmi is flanked by two elephants       which are sprinkling water on her head (abisheka Lakshmi). Reference: Pieper 305 (plate coin) / BMC pl.XXXVI, nos.4-5 Abisheka is a late Vedic rite originally performed by anointing government officials at special occasions. In Hindu worship the abisheka ritual is particularly connected with Lakshmi, though it is also performed by other believers. 'Rudraabisheka' for example is peformed on Shiva lingams. As can be seen on this coin Lakshmi is frequently depicted with two elephants adoring her by pouring water over her head. Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/8 karshapana, 'fish-holding Vasudhara' Weight: 1.00 gm., Diameter: 8x8 mm. Standing goddess Vasudhara holding a pair of fish with her outstretched      right, left hand akimbo.; standard on right. Ujjain symbol with extra circle in field. Reference: Pieper 295 (plate coin) The fish-holding goddess is known on coins and sculptural objects from Malwa, Vidarbha, Mathura, Kausambi and elsewhere and has been identified as Vasudhara, a goddess of wealth and auspiciousness.  Like Lakshmi she was popular among traders and others who searched protection and promotion for their diverse activities. Handa emphasizes the symbolic importance of the pair of fish "as one of the eight mangalika-chihnas 'auspicious signs' in literature". Central India, AE 1/8 karshapana,'fish-holding Vasudhara' Weight: 1.01 gm., Diameter: 8x8 mm. Standing goddess Vasudhara holding a pair of fish with her outstretched      right, left hand akimbo; she wears large earrings and pinned up hair (as      if wearing a vessel on her head); svastika on the top left. Lion standing to right Reference: Pieper 452 (plate coin) The provenance of this and the next coin is uncertain but may be assumed to be in western Malwa or closely linked regions south of the Narmada. Central India, AE 1/8 karshapana, 'fish-holding Vasudhara' Weight: 1.17 gm., Diameter: 11x8 mm. Standing goddess Vasudhara holding a pair of fish with her outstretched      right, left hand akimbo; her hair is pinned up (as if wearing a vessel on      her head; two crescent-like devices on the left. Tree Reference: Pieper 453 (plate coin) Ujjain, AE 1/4 karshapanaa, 'snake holding deity' Weight: 2.83 gm., Diameter: 11x11 mm. Frontally facing female figure, her left arm akimbo, her right raised hand holding      an uncertain object; on the left is a curved object like a snake     coming from a large basket that is standing at the bottom. Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 296 (plate coin) It is possible that this is also a depiction of 'fish-holding' Vasudhara but there are some differences. The uplifted right is unusual and the fact that the deity would be holding one of the two fish directly in her hand seems to be unusual as well. Usually Vasudhara is holding the pair of fish with a string so that they are hanging below her outstretched hand. To me it looks more as if she was holding a snake in her hand and the curved object on left as well bears more resemblance to a snake. And the basket which is standing at the bottom reminds one of the baskets in which snake charmers keep their snakes. If this interpretation was true, the depicted figure might be a serpent goddess such as Manasa who is particularly worshipped in Bengal but also in other parts of northern and north-eastern India. Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'Annapurna type' Weight: 3.17 gm., Diameter: 17x15 mm. Frontally standing female figure holding a vase or pot in her upraised right      hand, left akimbo; 6-armed symbol on top left; horizontally placed      Indradhvaja and taurine on bottom left; railed tree on right. Double-orbed Ujjain symbol. Reference: Pieper 294 (plate coin) /BMC pl.XXXVII, no.21 Handa suggested that the female on this coin may represent Annapurna (ICS-NL, 51, p.35). Annapurna is the Hindu goddess of nourishment, food, harvest and agriculture and hence very popular in the villages and rural regions of India. She is regarded as another form of Parvati, the consort of Shiva. Annapurna is depicted holding a bowl or pot filled with grain or other food. Her main temple stands in Varanasi but others are known at many other places among them a very famous one at Indore in Madhya Pradesh. Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/4 karshapana, 'taurine-holding deity' Weight: 3.00gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm. Frontally standing female figure holding taurine in raised left, right akimbo;      chakra above Ujjain symbol on left; svastika above railed tree on right. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb. Reference: Pieper 298 (plate coin)/ BMC pl.XXXVII, no.8 The identity of this taurine holding female remains uncertain at the moment. Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/4 karshapana, 'six-headed Shashthi type' Weight: 1.95 gm., Diameter: 14x12 mm. Simplified female figure frontally standing, both arms hanging down; railed      tree on right; river line at the bottom. Ujjain symbol with svastika in each angle. Reference: Pieper 300 (plate coin) Referring to depictions of six-headed Shashthi on some Yaudheya coins Devendra Handa takes the five dots around the main head of the female on this coin type as additional heads and identifies her  as Shashthi on this Ujjain type as well (ICS-NL, 51, p.34). Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'shoulder decorated deity' Weight: 3.30 gm., Diameter: 15x15 mm. In square incuse standing human on left with rings (bracelets) around the      shoulders; Ujjain symbol in center; hand or footprint symbol on right;      horizontally placed railed tree at top; river at the bottom. Reference: Pieper 297 (plate coin) The identity of this peculiar human figure with the circles / rings/ ornaments at the shoulders is still open. Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana,'Balarama & ass-demon' Weight: 3.86 gm., Diameter: 15x14 mm. Human figure on left holding stick and kamandalu standing towards a       horse-like animal which faces him from right; palm tree on right; Ujjain      symbol on top; a taurine above the animal and taurine and svastika at      the bottom. Ujjain symbol with a svastika in each orb and taurines in the angles. Reference: Pieper 346 In a note to the SACG website Shailendra Bhandare suggested the scene on this coin representing the mythical story of 'Balarama killing the ass demon' and the depiction seems to reflect that story indeed quite well- even if the deity on this coin has no specific Vaishnavite attributes. We are told that there had been a large grove where there were palmyras bearing delicious fruits. But nobody dared to go there because the site was guarded by Dhenuka, a demon in the form of an ass. Finally Balarama, inseparable companion of Krishna, killed the demon by crashing him against one of the palm trees. In his contribution to 'Between the Empires' Bhandare discusses the story of 'Balarama killing the ass-demon' in the context of the coinage of Erikachha where the palm-tree and ass had been characteristic coin devices. Typologically this coin type may thus rather belong to Erikachha than to Ujjain. Ujjain, anonymous AE, 'Brahma type' Weight: 2.84 gm., Diameter: 14x14 mm. Standing male figure holding long curved staff and kamandalu (water-pot)      Ujjain symbol on top left and Brahmi legend 'bramha' on top right. Six-arched chaitya (hill/ multiarched structure) with indistict object on top;     indistinct Brahmi legend below the chaitya . Reference: Pieper 410 (plate coin) In ICS-NL, no.50, p.31-32, Devendra Handa identified the deity on this coin type as Brahma as it is clearly indicated by the Brahmi legend on the right top corner of the obverse. Handa discusses the possibility that the object on top of the chaitya on reverse might be a swan (vahana or vehicle of Brahma) on post. Taking the chaitya symbol representing a temple in this case, it thus might be a temple dedicated to god Brahma. Brahma, creator of the universe, is part of the Hindu trinity together with Vishnu and Shiva. Although usually Brahma is represented as a four-armed deity with certain specific attributes, one cannot expect these features here, as the iconography was not yet developed that far and nowhere on these early coins do we see multi-armed deities. Staff and kamandalu (water-pot) are unspecific attributes which Brahma shares with other deities. Ujjain, anonymous AE 3/8 karshapana, 'Brahma type' Weight: 3.28 gm., Diameter: 15x13 mm. Like the previous specimen but reverse design blank or corroded. Reference: Pieper 411 (plate coin) Ujjain, anonymous AE 1/4 karshapana, 'standing couple type' Weight: 2.81 gm., Diameter: 17x15 mm. Standing male and female human figure side by side holding hands, female's      right hand raised to her head, male's left akimbo, hair decorations      on both sides of the male's head; river at the bottom. Ujjain symbol with a taurine in each orb. Reference: Pieper 302 (plate coin)/ BMC pl.XXXVI, nos.1-3 Several attempts have been made in the past to identify the two figures on this coin type. Amongst other explanations some researchers have tried to interpret the scene as representing the marriage of Shiva and Parvati but there is no clear evidence for any such definite attribution. In the abscence of any specific attributes one can only describe the scene as a depiction of a closely attached human couple. Ujjain region, c/m anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana Weight: 3.96 gm., Diameter: 17x17 mm. Standing male figure holding kamandalu (water-pot) and danda (stick);     wheel above six-armed symbol on left; three-arched hill with crescent     on top right; countermark on top right depicting a bull with svastika and     taurine. Blank reverse. Reference: Pieper 417 (plate coin) / see Kothari 267 for undertype Ujjain region, c/m anonymous AE karshapana Weight: 7.64 gm., Diameter: 21x21 mm. Countermark (=standing human figure holding stick and kamandalu) on the      blank reverse of an Ujjain region coin. Worn traces of undertype: three-arched hill, Ujjain symbol, six-armed-      symbol and river. Reference: Pieper 418 (plate coin) / compare Kothari 325 Ujjain region, c/m anonymous AE 1/2 karshapana Weight: 5.13 gm., Diameter: 16x15 mm. Countermark (=standing human figure, his left akimbo, his right raised;      Indradhvaja on left). Faint traces of worn undertype of which Ujjain symbol and parts of a tree      are visible. Reference: Pieper 421 (plate coin) / see Kothari 286